What Is Disciplinary Literacy Can Improve The Classroom...

What is disciplinary literacy in the history classroom? What are the specific literacy strategies/skills students need in the history classroom? What are the demands of the disciplinary literacy in the history classroom? What does the history teacher need to know to develop disciplinary literacy in her/his classroom? How to develop disciplinary literacy skills in the history classroom? Bain, R. B. (2012). Using disciplinary literacy to develop coherence in history teacher education: The clinical rounds project. The History Teacher, 45(4), 513 - 532. Bain (2012) defines disciplinary literacy in history as the necessary connections to improve the teachers capabilities to use reading and writing in history across different contexts and in a range of learners. Bain (2012), based on Mojes s findings, claims that there are four identified interconnected skills of funds of knowledge: semantic, disciplinary, discursive, and pragmatic knowledge. Historians read, interpret, and analyze to create narratives, explanations, or arguments. According to Bain (2012), the traditional strategies of sourcing, contextualizing, or corroborating do not fully capture the reading support that students need to understand the different genre, positions, and type of historical texts. There are greater demands for adolescents in reading and writing. The text complexity of the history texts in middle and high schools demand from students in these grades toShow MoreRelatedQuestions On Increasing Disciplinary Reading986 Words   |  4 Pages1. Increasing Disciplinary Reading Biancarosa (2012) states in the introduction to this section that as students progress up through the grades their reading in content-area courses becomes progressively more distinct (p. 47). A student in a fourth grade science course will encounter different terminology in a fourth grade social studies course and even more diverse terminology by the time they reach high school biology. However, I have often found, and Biancarosa (2012) as acknowledges that manyRead MoreHow Sex Differences Affect My Middle School Teaching1389 Words   |  6 Pagesstudents. Throughout this paper I will outline what I have learned about sex differences in learning and how this will be applied to the classes I teach. After reading Doreen Kimura’s book, Sex and Cognition, I got to wondering how the sex differences that she outlined could be used to better understand the ways that my middle school students learned. There were a few findings that stuck out from her research that I felt applied directly to my classroom. One of those findings was the difference inRead MoreUsing Online Literacy Software Programs1562 Words   |  7 Pagesstudy and discover whether the online digital programs being used in the classroom help ELLs master the academic vocabulary to understand advanced texts. Given these facts, the researcher has proposed himself to focus his action research on the following question: Will the ELLs improve their comprehension skills of expository texts by focusing most of their practices on vocabulary development through the use of online literacy software programs? Review of the Literature English language learners (ELLs)Read MoreLearning Using A Whole Class1094 Words   |  5 Pageswriting to think historically and better understand the past. Disciplinary thinking and improving literacy were essential for Mr. Lyle. By integrating writing to learn strategies as well as reading historical documents for context, Mr. Lyle’s students were using historical reasoning which in turn promoted his students reading, writing, and thinking skills. Mr. Lyle’s approach helped â€Å"students understand content, promote disciplinary thinking†, and the skills needed for his student’s future careersRead MoreClassroom Climate Is The Focus Of Education Issues921 Words   |  4 Pagesinvestigation about classroom climate is the focus of education issues. Large number of educators are exploring through a variety of disciplinary perspectives and diverse research methods. With the arrival of technology and the ecological trend of educational development, class room climate is becoming a new perspective and path of classroom study. In the Article Exploring the Relationship between Classroom Climate, Reading Motivation, and Achievement: A Look into 7th Grade Classrooms, the authors MucherahRead MoreEll Shadowing Case Study960 Words   |  4 Pagesteachers will participate in determining what actions could be taken to better educate ESL students. The mechanics of the program would involve teachers accompanying ESL students to their classes for two to three hours and, at five-minute intervals, noting briefly what the primary action of the ESL student is (e.g., listening, talking, etc). This monitoring is not a travel log of the student’s activities during the day, but, rather, notes of the type that can be summarized into data points (Soto,Read MoreThe Nature Of Teaching And Learning1682 Words   |  7 Pagesstates/territories’ education ministers. The goals were set in the context of a 21st century Australia being able to compete in the global economy on knowledge and innovation. The Declaration stressed the development of skills in social interaction, cross-disciplinary thinking, the use of digital media as well as the national values of â€Å"democracy, equity and justice, and personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience and respect for others† (p 2). The Declaration set out two main goals: 1. AustralianRead MoreMy Experience With English Language Learners Essay1397 Words   |  6 Pageseducator, it is important for me to make my classroom a great learning environment for all of my students. Growing up, I would always enjoy hands-on activities in the classroom. I remember looking forward to different holidays because we would be able to participate in an arts and crafts activities while being able to learn about the holiday we were celebrating. Until I started learning more about English Language Learners, I never realized how these activities can be more difficult for some students. BecauseRead MoreOverview of Common Core State Standards1226 Words   |  5 Pageswhether students were meeting those standards (Gibbs, T. Howley, A., 2000). In 1996, the nation’s governors and various corporate leaders founded Achieve, Inc., as a bipartisan effort to raise academic standards and graduation requirements, improve assessments, and heighten academic accountability in all 50 states (Achieve, Inc. 1996). An Achieve, Inc. 2004 report, titled, Ready or Not: Creating a High School Diploma That Counts, stated that both employers and colleges were demanding moreRead MoreThe Growth Of Literacy Skills2155 Words   |  9 PagesLiteracy can be defined as the ability to read and write. It can also be defined as the capacity to identify, understand, create, interpret, communicate and compute, using written and printed materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy includes the capability to read, comprehend, and critically appreciate various forms of communication, including spoken language, written text, broadcast media, and digital media. The contemporary meaning has been expanded to include the knowledge to use language

The Clash of Civilizations Free Essays

The Clash of Civilizations? It is Samuel Huntington’s opinion that conflict in the post-Cold War world would be caused by cultural differences, conflicts amongst nations and groups of different civilizations. In today’s time, it is more common to group countries in terms of their civilization aspects, such as religion or culture, versus that of their economic systems. Huntington explained how interaction amongst the different civilizations will shape the world we live in and any conflicts will occur amongst the differences of each civilization. We will write a custom essay sample on The Clash of Civilizations? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Huntington gives five reasons for his beliefs. The first reason is because civilizations are basic. The differences occur amongst traditions, culture, language, religion, etc. Secondly, civilizations are seeing increase interaction so people are becoming more aware of those differences. Third, economic transformation and social change are changing how people view certain civilizations from the way they may have been viewed before. Fourth, the West has caused an increase of more people being familiar of other civilizations. Fourth, the differences and characteristics of civilizations are less changeable; those of one civilization cannot simply become part of another civilization. Finally, there is an increase in economic regionalism. Similar to the second point, there is an increase interaction amongst civilizations. Trade has increased, making people dependent upon other civilizations to lead to their success. Huntington uses the Cold War as the time period where the differences between civilizations would cause conflict, replacing the differences between political or ideological boundaries. Huntington breaks the world into â€Å"major civilizations†, The West, Latin America, The Orthodox, The Eastern World, The Muslim World of the greater Middle East, The civilization of sub-Saharan Africa, â€Å"Lone† countries, and â€Å"Cleft† countries. Huntington explains how the West is a superpower compared to other civilizations and it is often reflected in global decisions, such as that of the International Monetary Fund, going in favor of the West. This allows the West to control the world, not only with their interests, but with their beliefs as well. As a result, there is conflict amongst the West and other civilizations. As we compare this article to today’s world in 2012, I believe that issues that are arising are differences in civilization beliefs. Huntington’s hypothesis, in my opinion has been proven true. For example, The West believes in equality, freedom of speech, human rights, etc. Was that not the entire purpose for entering Iraq, to eliminate the power of Saddam Hussein, who did not have any beliefs of the Western ways? The West is truly a powerhouse who believes the world should operate as they do which I do not believe will change. Civilizations have held strong in their beliefs; especially comparing The West to other civilizations, leaving tension amongst them. How to cite The Clash of Civilizations?, Papers

Andy Warhol on the 20th century artist Essay Example For Students

Andy Warhol on the 20th century artist Essay Andy Warhol Ive chosen to write my paper on the 20th century artist Andy Warhol. Andy Warhol was born as Andrew Warhol on August 6th, 1928 in Pittsburgh, PA. He is known as a lead figure in pop art for his visually striking prints and paintings. He was also known on the side for filming, author, and for the people he associated with including celebrities, intellectuals and wealthy people. Andy Warhol is well known in the artist community, one Of his paintings being sold for up to SOCIO million. Andy studied commercial art at the School Of Fine Arts at Carnegie Institute Of Technology in PA. He moved to NYC in 1949 and began advertising and illustrating. He began with loose, blotted-ink style and was then hired by a record company to design album covers and promo material. He then began using the silk screen printmaking process in a lot of his paintings. Several of his advertising images had a characteristic image; they resulted in a cartoonist sort of painting. His art work was filled with imperfections from smudges to smears but it was tolerated for he believed that When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something. In the sass he began exhibiting art in New York and held his first art exhibition in Los Angles, CA It was during the 1 asss that Andy Warhol began making portraits of iconic celebrities including Elvis Presley, Elizabeth Taylor, Marilyn Monroe, and Muhammad All just to name a few. He used the silkscreen method for these portraits and his work became very popular, Included in his exhibits were his portraits of dollar bills, political madness, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, and brand name products; an example being a portrait of a Campbell tomato soup can which he is well known for. A portrait of one of these NAS sold for up to $11500 vile an autographed can sold for $6. In 1968, Valerie Salinas attempted to murder Andy Warhol. She had shot him because she Andy wouldnt return a script she had given him after he turned her down from his films. Andy was severely wounded and just barely survived. He suffered for the rest Of his life; it affected his art and his outlook on life. Afterwards he made portraits of more celebrities including John Lennox. Liz Millennial, Diana Ross, and Mice]eager. He was still quite relevant in the asss, mainly being criticized for being a business artist and for his facile and immemorial portraits.

What makes asian growth so phenomenal free essay sample

Asian cities have been tended to grow more quickly than Western cities, so what makes their growth so phenomenal? The accelerated rate may be attributed to population dynamics, economic markets and or/socio-political conditions, poor planning and disregarding environmental hazards like flood plains have held them back. Many primate cities in Asia have grown to become megacities, and some more are rapidly increasing in size to assume such a status by the end of the century. This is a remarkable phenomenon fraught with various implications, favorable or unfavorable. In 1960 there were only two megacities in the region, which were, Tokyo and Shanghai. In 1970 Beijing was added, and Asia had three of 10 megacities in the world, or two of five in the developing world. By 1980 Bombay, Cacutta, Osaka, and Seoul also assumed similar status, and Asia had seven of 15 world megacities. In 1990, with Tianjin, Jakarta, Delhi, and Manila becoming megacities, developing Asia contained nine of 14 mega-cities in the less developed regions. We will write a custom essay sample on What makes asian growth so phenomenal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In my opinion, I believe that the population dynamics are the most influential to urban growth. Population Examination Over two centuries, from 18th century to 20th century, the level of mortality has changed dramatically in Asian countries. The demographers use life expectancy of birth, which is the average number of years that newborn baby can be expected to live, as a mean to measure the mortality level. Generally, the life expectancy of birth has increased rapidly from the beginning of 18th century. In some countries of Asia like Japan and Ceylon, the death rate has been tending to fall since the 1920’s. But in most countries it began to show a rapid tendency toward decline only after World War II. According to recent data, the death rate is 12.1 per 1,000 for India, 9.1 for Ceylon, 7.1-7.3 for Hongkong, Taiwan and the Philippines, and 6.5 per 1,000 for Singapore. If these death rates were expressed in terms of standardized death rates, the latter would be higher than the former in Asia where the proportion of juvenile population is higher. But, even using standardized death rates, we can conclude that there has been a marked mortality decline in Asian countries. Particularly remarkable is the decline in infant mortality. The former infant mortality of 200 per 1,000 for India has now been reduced to half. In almost all countries it is far below the 100 per 1,000 levels. Burma, however, with an infant mortality rate of  slightly more than 100 per 1,000 is an exception. Also, while observing mortality rate, birth rate is considered in why Asian population growth is phenomenal. The birth rate in boys is 9.17 births per 1,000 population and for girls 8.39 births per 1,000 population giving it a total of 17.56 births per 1,000 population, being much higher than the United States which is at 12.7 per 1,000 population. Other Factors Being that there are many other factors that could have been chosen as the reason Asian growth is so phenomenal, I truly did not believe any of them really stood up to par as population did. The first that I would like to examine is economic market. Although the economic market is doing extremely well I do not believe it determines why Asia is growing so quickly. â€Å"The three largest Asian countries, China, Indonesia and India, place 89th, 122nd and 133rd respectively in the World Bank’s ‘ease of doing business rankings.’ In order to sustain the growth, physical infrastructure will need to be prioritized: the Asian Development Bank estimates that $8 trillion is needed for infrastructure development. Demographics will pose a challenge. In East Asia there is the rapid aging of the population, while in Central and South Asia education and employment will need to be found to stave off possible socio-political unrest among the booming youth population† (Lehmann 2010). The following article shows that the correlation between economics and population is negative; this being one of the main reasons why I believe economics does not have the greatest effect on Asian growth, but is still an important factor. Though there are multiple reasons the population is growing so rapidly, there are a countless amount of events and tragedies holding the population back. There is a lot of deforestation and desertification going on in Asia. They are exploiting the land for a profit, for example in Burma they exploit timber, oil and mineral resources to support their government. There are also poor farmers all over using improper irrigation and fertilization practices causing a lot of the soil to be toxic. Another huge issue in Asia is water, due to the massive population it costs a ridiculous amount to treat the water so most water is polluted by untreated sewage, salt water, and industrial discharges. Conclusion In closing, Asian cities have been tended to grow more quickly than Western cities. Although, there are many attributes this such as population dynamics, economic markets and or/socio-political conditions, poor planning and disregarding environmental hazards like flood plains have held them back and only one, in my opinion, is the main reason for extreme growth. I believe that the population dynamics are the most influential to urban growth. Putting into consideration the great economy and socio political conditions even then I still believe that population dynamics is the greatest reason for massive growth. Being that there are factors holding them back it is still fascinating to see that Asia is growing so quickly.

CLASS PROJECT Essays - Evaluation, Quality Management, Quality

CLASS PROJECT Essays - Evaluation, Quality Management, Quality CLASS PROJECT MGT 6110 MANAGING CORPORATE RESOURCE RESEARCH MANAGEMENT CENTRE INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA Amir Qayyum bin Che Norddin (G1337179) Sari Yulis Terfiadi (G1338507) Yusuf Wibisono (G1331963) Nasrul Izad Mohd Isa (G1337159) Basree Karing (G1339553) Master of Business Administration, Graduate School of Management International Islamic University Malaysia Jalan Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur Selangor Prepared for Asst. Prof. Dr. Dolhadi Zainuddin TABLE OF CONTENT NO CONTENT PAGE NO. 1 INFORMATION ABOUT THE ORGANIDSATION 3 2 OVERVIEW ABOUT RESEARCH MANAGEMENT CENTER 7 3 SCOPE - CONTROL 10 4 CONTROL SYSTEM 12 5 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 19 6 MEASUREMENT, ANALYSIS AND IMPROVEMENT 26 7 SAMPLE OF PROCESS-PROCESSING OF APPLICATION FOR INTERNAL GRANT 30 8 COMPETETIVE ADVANTAGE 36 9 RECOMMENDATIION 36 10 APPENDICES 38 INFORMATION ABOUT THE ORGANISATION Brief History The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) offers students a unique opportunity for academic excellence and individual growth. The University is committed to a rigorous, comprehensive approach to higher learning. The IIUM regards knowledge as a trust from Allah to be utilized, in accordance with his guidance for the benefit of mankind. The University value intellectual inquiry and considers the quest for knowledge as an act of worship. By integrating sources of revealed knowledge into arts and sciences curricula, The University contributes to the enrichment and the advancement of the individual and society. The International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) was founded by the Malaysian Government and co-sponsored by the organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and several Muslim countries in 1983. The move for the establishment was initiated by the Prime Minister, Dato' Seri Dr. Mahathir bin Mohammad, in 1982. The university operates under the direction of a Board of Governors with representative from Malaysia (host country), Bangladesh, Egypt, Libya, Maldives, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). The IIUM is the only public University in Malaysia, which uses English as its medium of instruction. Arabic is also used as the medium of instruction for undergrad uate and postgraduate programs in a number of Kulliyahs. The University campuses are located in Gombak, Kuantan and Petaling Jaya. The Gombak campus is located on a 288-hectare site, ten miles from Kuala Lumpur, the nation's capital. About 250 kilometer of Kuala Lumpur is the Kuantan Campus, 1000 acres of a virtual garden nestled within a valley surrounded by thick forest. This is where the Medical Science, Pharmacy, Allied Health Science, Nursing, Dentistry faculties are located. The Centre for Foundation Studies (formally known as Matriculation Centre) is a specially designed center to accommodate and prepare students for entrance to degree programs offered at the University. Centre for Foundation Studies is situated in Section 17, Petaling Jaya, Selangor. The International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC) is a research and postgraduate institution of the IIUM, offering master and doctoral degrees in Islamic and other civilizations; philosophy, ethics and contemporary issues, Islamic spiritual culture and contem porary society; Muslim world issues; and their respective sub-areas. ISTAC is set amidst a wooded and serene residential area in Persiaran Duta, Kuala Lumpur and presently known as IIUM KL Campus. The Objectives of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) The Objectives of IIUM are as follows: To revitalize the Islamic concept of learning which consider as an act of worship and the spirit behind t he pursuit of scientific inquiry as inspired by the teachings of the Holy Qu ran To re-establish the primacy of Islam in all fields of knowledge consistent wi th the Islamic tradition of purs uit of knowledge and truth, as reflected by those pioneering works of early Islamic scholars To revive the ancient Islamic tradition of learning where knowledge was propagated and sought after in the spirit of submission to Allah (Tawhid) To widen the choices open to Muslim Ummah in higher education through the establishment of an Islamic Institution of higher learning, which seeks to excel in all forms of academic achievement. Vision Inspired by the world-view of Tawhid and the Islamic philosophy of the unity of knowledge as well as its concept of holistic education, IIUM aims to be leading international center of educational excellence which. Revitalizes the intellectual dynamism of Islam and the Ummah Integrates Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Values in all academic

Business Essays – Puma Company Brand

Business Essays Puma Company Brand Puma Company Brand 1. Executive Summary Puma AG is a multinational company that is based in German and manufactures high athletic and sportswear shoes both for women and men, It was founded by Rudolf Dassler after a dispute with his brother Adi Dassler with whom they had founded the Dassler Schuhfabrik in 1924. Puma had a very poor brand image that show a decline in its market share and prompted puma to change it strategic decisions to improve on its image, this process of change was led by Jochen Zeitz Puma CEO based on phases one to four of strategic plan to change puma’s image so that it can compete favorable in the marketplace and within a couple of years Jochen Zeitz had change puma’s brand image into one of the most desirable and sought after brand of sportswear and footwear worn both buy celebrities and fashion followers all over the word. 1.1 Introduction Puma was founded in Dassler Schuhfabrik, Herzogenaurach, Germany by Rudolf Dassler after a dispute with hi s brother Adi Dassler with whom they had founded the Dassler Schuhfabrik in 1924. Until early 2003 puma had a very poor brand image that show a decline in its market share and prompted puma to change it strategic decisions to improve on its image, this process of change was led by Jochen Zeitz Puma CEO based on phases one to four of strategic plan to change puma’s image so that it can compete favorable in the marketplace and within a couple of years Jochen Zeitz had change puma’s brand image into one of the most desirable and sought after brand of sportswear and footwear worn both buy celebrities and fashion followers all over the word. This report is divided in three parts, Part one presents the factors that influenced puma to change it brand image and it further goes to describe these factors under Macro-environmental analysis basing on market trends, rivalry between customers and strategic group mapping. The second part presents the puma’s resources and capab ilities in terms of strengths and weakness as well as virtuallity as seen as strengthens and the third part of the report presents puma’s winning strategies basing on pumas situation that fits the company, sustainable completive advantages and as a better performing company. According to case study of Puma AG (in Thompson, A.A., Strickland, A.J. and Gamble, J. (2005) Crafting and Executing Strategy (Fourteenth Edition), McGraw-Hill, New York, pages C411- C432), The environmental and competitive factors that influenced Puma’s strategic decision to improve its Brand image is identified under Macro- environmental factors, rivalry between competitors and strategic group mapping as below. 1.1.2 Macro –environmental factors Lack of social acceptance of Puma brand from the upper class customers who were not willing to wear the brand because they considered to of poor quality and were sold â€Å" dirt-cheap † Puma’s brand was compromised and this a affecte d it’s value for example Rudi’s son wanted puma products to reach all the customers of all social back ground and this move was seen by the upper class people as some thing below them and they can not be seen wearing the same brand as people on welfare recipients. In order for pumas brand to be accepted as a high quality brand of value, force puma to change and improve its brand so that it can be socially accepted by customers.

DB5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DB5 - Essay Example Each and every member gets to learn about everyone’s behavior in the organization. Every member tries to avoid conflicts and every member gets busy. In this stage, every member gets to learn about the organization routines and the challenges (Moger 2000). The second phase is the storming; where by each member’s ideas try to compete for consideration. Here, the team members discuss the issues in the organization and try to look for solutions. The third stage is the norming where the team members agree on one plan and on one goal. Some of the members are forced to give up on their ideas in order to agree with others in the team (Moger 1999). The last stage is the performing where the members are able to function like a team. They find their own ways as to how the jobs can be effectively and efficiently done. The members are able to perform their job with less supervision (White 2009). The manager is in the third stage, norming. This is, because the manager has to make the late worker to give up on her lateness so that the whole team can work as a whole. The late work has to agree with the other members of the team so that the team can function well and

Development of Pprogram for Non-Verbal Communication Skills Research Paper

Development of Pprogram for Non-Verbal Communication Skills - Research Paper Example Everything communicates, including material objects, physical space and time systems. Although verbal output can be turned off, non-verbal cannot. Even silence speaks. Non-verbal signals are powerful, instinctive, genuine and more honest. Social etiquette limits what can be said, but non-verbal cues can communicate thoughts. MODES OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Non-verbal communication has the following modes – Proxemics – Nearness or physical distance between speakers. Chronemics – Time systems. Oculesics – Eye contacts and reflection of mind through eyes. Haptics – Touch sensation Para-language – features of intonation, stress etc. Kinesics – gestures Silence Inaction Demonstration Environment NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH Words are accented and punctuated by body movements and gestures while the face shows a myriad of expressions. While communicating, non-verbal messages can interact with verbal messages in five ways – repeati ng, conflicting, complementing, substituting and moderating. It is important to be aware of the dominance of the non-verbal message. The validity and the reliability of verbal messages are checked by non-verbal actions. Verbal and non-verbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye-contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty or frustration. When mixed messages occur, non-verbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation. Great attention is placed on bodily movements when people perceive mixed message4s during interaction. This mode of communication increases the degree of the perceived psychological closeness between people. Non-verbal communication s kills pervade all areas of life like business, marketing, management, trade and education. It is natural. Instinctive and universal and can serve to bridge the communication gap in the global scenario. LITERATURE REVIEW There is abundant research on communication but cooperatively, much less attention has been given to non-verbal communication. Most of the studies in this field are carried out by doctors or medical practitioners. They are related to autistic children or mentally retarded children or children having special needs. Albert Mehrabian, an American psychologist, has studied the relative importance of verbal and non-verbal communication. He came to the conclusion that there are basically three elements in face-to-face communication – word, tone of voice and body language. According to Mehrabian, these three account differently for the meaning of the message. Words account for 7%, tone of voice accounts for 39% and body language for 55%. For meaningful and effective communication, these three elements need to support each other. While verbal communication is only 7%, non-verbal consists of 38 + 55= 93%. Hence, there is no doubt as to its importance. REVIEWS 1. The researcher conducted a study on schools children and concluded six ways of improving NVC skills, like miming, watching video clips and interpretation of gestures. (Vicki Ritts )

Paper on the Impact of Workplace Diversity in Team Dynamics Essay Example for Free

Paper on the Impact of Workplace Diversity in Team Dynamics Essay Every individual who is in the job force or in a school environment faces the inevitable fact that at some point they may have to work in a group or team composed of individuals that they may not like. This paper will try to shed some light on the subtle differences between a workgroup and a team and how it relates the team dynamics in the workplace. According to The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology (2000), â€Å"A group is a social system involving regular interaction among members and a common group identity† (para. , this means that a group is composed of individuals who would maintain a constant communication with each other to create and share a common identity. The existence of the group identity is mostly only recognized by the group members of the particular group and not by the outsiders. The togetherness or the cohesion of the group tends to vary from one group to the next because it is not always clear if a group has enough communication or interaction to qualify as a group. To explain this further, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology (2000) explains that groups should not be seen a one distinct category, but instead a group should be perceived as a social system that has varying interactions that could range form the intense involvement and intense identity mostly associated in social structures like families and close friends. On the other hand, people who ride and see each other on a daily while riding a bus could not be considered as a group because there is no sense of involvement among the individuals. In addition, The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology (2000) also states the groups tends to vary on the amount of interactions that the individuals have among the group, the longevity or life span of the group, and the reasons of the individuals in joining or participating in the group. According to Bales (1950), a group is a very important sociological concept because it has a complex and very important part in the development of an individuals’ social life. Bales (1950), mentions that â€Å"a group is a key agent of social control over individuals, for it is the group that social pressures toward conformity can be most directly applies, especially when those who deviate risk their membership as a result. † A group can be perceived as a controlling agent in the way individual conform to society and how he or she reacts to certain stimuli because if he or she deviates form the groups norms, he of she risks losing their membership with that particular group. Furthermore, according to Bales (1950), groups are important because of the impact of the social consequences the individuals learn in a group. Many individuals learn the benefits and consequences of their actions and decisions that they make in life in a group and that most of the social activities that an individual may take occurs within the membership in a group. Other the other hand, the definition of a team is somewhat different from the definitions given to a group. According the Weiss (1998), a team would consist of a few individuals who possess complimentary skills and are equally commits to a common goal, a purpose, and share a common working method in which they hold themselves mutually accountable for their actions. Sears (1998), states that teams must have a set of necessary elements to be defined as such. The elements to be considered as a team includes: there should be no more that 20 individuals in a team; individuals must possess adequate levels of complementary skills; individuals must possess a common team purpose; possess specific goal or goals; and possess a clear approach in the team working progress. Sears (1998) goes on to mention that teams tend to be risky, disruptive, and elusive. Sears (1998) states that even though after the members are chosen and the schedules and duties are set, very little constructive work comes out of it and eventually nothing is accomplished and work progress fails to emerge. Sears (1998) mentions that teams are disruptive because most organizations prefer individual accountability over team accountability especially in regard to performance and the reward structures of the organization. Sears (1998), states that most of the components needed to accomplish a task is mostly performed by an individual and that very little teamwork is needed to accomplish most of the work. Sears (1998) also identifies teams as elusive because teams are spontaneous. Sears (1998), states the teams do not just immediately become a team just because it is called a team, it needs so much work, nurturing, and team building exercises and sometimes that does not even work to make the members of the teamwork cohesively. On the other hand, Weiss (1998) gives insight into why teams are relatively popular. First, projects that are assigned to teams are more likely to be accomplished than those assigned to a specific individual. Second, teams make practical and reasonable decisions as long as the team is given specific and measurable goals to measure the team performance, and the teams are given meaningful and timely feedback. Third, the rewards and punishment are more effective in swaying ndividual performance when it is given by a workgroup rather by a single supervisor or manager. Fourth, working in a team is preferred by many individual employees, especially by those who hate being bossed around. Fifth, teams can effectively handle inventory, scheduling, quality assurance and other duties that are typically reserved for members of the upper management. Last, teams often lower the cost of management because of the lower ratio of supervisors to employees which is 1 to 50 employees. According to Cornell University (2010), Workplace diversity is a people issue, focused on the differences and similarities that people bring to an organization. It is usually defined broadly to include dimensions beyond those specified legally in equal opportunity and affirmative action non-discrimination statutes. Diversity is often interpreted to include dimensions which influence the identities and perspectives that people bring, such as profession, education, parental status and geographic location† (Workplace Diversity, para). Workplace diversity could bring many benefits to an organization when it is nurtured and given the time to be understood. The organization’s competitiveness and ultimate success relies on its ability to realize the multitude of benefits that workplace diversity brings. According to Greenberg (2005), â€Å"when organization actively assess their handling of workplace diversity issues, develop and implement diversity plans, multiple benefits are reported such as increased adaptability† (Diversity in the Workplace, para). Greenberg (2005) continues to state that organizations that employ a very diverse workforce will be able to provide different solutions to problems that arise in service, in sourcing, and allocation of the resources faced by the company. This states that in employing individuals from different backgrounds, an organization could utilize the different talents, abilities, and experiences that these individuals may have to come up with a possible solution to a problem. Furthermore, Greenberg (2005) also states that if an organization that acquires a workplace that has collection of a very diverse skills and experiences (such a different languages, national and cultural customs), an organization could potentially provide a better service to customers in a global scale. It could also provide better communication in relaying varying viewpoints and ideas to meet the organizations business strategy and more importantly, the needs of the customers. Workplace diversity also provides benefits to team dynamics. The Ehow. om (1999-2010) websites states workplace diversity brings vibrancy to the workplace that increases the camaraderie and the humanitarian spirit in each employee. In addition, according to Ehow. com (1999-2010), â€Å"teams working on complex and expansive projects can draw on the varied experiences of fellow workers from diverse backgrounds, learn new languages, understand new markets and execute tasks efficiently† (para). Last, the Ehow. com (1999-2010) website also mentions that in achieving increased diversity comes an equal increase in perspective. Many individuals in an organization comes from different cultural groups, practice different religions, have different racial and national backgrounds that may give an insight into how to solve a particular problem that could potentially attract potential customers with that same background. Many advantages, disadvantages, and differences between a group and a team exist. One might think that the words group and team could be used in exchange for the other, but they cannot because of the words’ ultimate definition. The word group is defined by scholars as a social group that involves a regular interaction between its members who has a common group identity. On the other hand, the word team is defined as a group of people who possesses complimentary skills committed to a single purpose and a common goal. This paper also introduced the benefits that could be achieved by an organization that promotes workplace diversity. These benefits include the increases adaptability, wider range of service, and variety of viewpoints, better execution, higher production, and better return on investment.

Corruption in the Canturbury Tales by Gefforey Chaucer Essay -- greed,

The Canterbury Tales, penned by Geoffrey Chaucer gives its audiences insight on the corruption that exists to this day in humanity. As you read through the chapters Chaucer reveals the dark sides to supposedly respectable people such as the Summoner, along with people he favors like the Knight, the Wife of Bath, and women in general. His comical descriptions and stories that coincide with each character express his thoughts on real people in his society. My perception of the Summoner’s tale moral is that greed is the root of all evil. The Summoners tale introduces us to a greedy Friar who only begs at the homes of the rich. Instead of praying for the people he meets the Friar erases their names from his tablet after taking advantage of their accommodations and stealing their money. When the greedy Friar makes a stop at Thomas’ home he is greeted by his troubled wife who had recently lost her child, the Friar sees the wife’s vulnerability as an opportunity to make more money and tells her he had a vision of her son in heaven. This leads to Thomas’s wife reaching out to the Friar about her dieing husband being in a nasty mood. Thomas sees the Friars transparency so he questions him about his health â€Å"God knows† said Thomas, I feel no benefit therefrom. So help me, Christ, in the few years I have spent many a pound on all sorts of Friars, yet I never get better. Truly, I have almost used up my mon ey. Farewell by gold it is all gone!† (Page 192-193)The Friar then turns the tables on Thomas and blames his illness on him giving money to other friars â€Å"Why does a man who has a perfect physician need to seek other doctors in the town? Your infidelity has ruined you. Do you think that it insufficient that I, or rather our group, should pra... ...d fair, And take your chance on those who will repair To your house now and then because of me (Or to some other place, it may well be). Choose for yourself the one you'd rather try." (Pages 1119-1125) The Knight seems to have learned his lesson for he leaves the decision up to the old woman, the story ends with the Knight living happily ever after with is beautiful and faithful wife. This story reflects on how strongly Chaucer believed in women’s rights because it reveals women’s desires and opinions. In conclusion, The Canterbury Tales reflects Geoffrey Chaucer’s view on medieval society. From his writings we are able to visualize and learn about different social classes’ from an honest point of view. The Knight, the Wife of Bath, and women character we greatly favored throughout the tales while others were highly unlikeable. Works Cited the cantubury tales

The beach, the place I come to when I finish the day

The beach, the place I come to when I finish the day†¦. It's the perfect place to relax after the pressure of working at a Caribbean bar. Everyday I come to the beach and sit around, it allows me to cool off from work and think about how bad or good my day has been. The beach is always empty at this time and is perfectly located, right outside my house. Stretching a mile in either direction there is plenty of room for people to go who want to be alone, who want time to gather their thoughts and work out what has actually happened to day nd what hasn't. It's also the time when you usually realise you forgot to do something, that's basically why I come here. As I look off down the beach I see the island as night approaches, in the distance the lights of hotels come on, the occasional car lights, the boats in the harbour turn their lights on and the lone cruise ship coming in lit up like a Christmas tree. The sunsets in the distance falling slowly behind the vast spread of water and already high in the sky the moon begins it's over watch. The beach, now cast in a reddish old light begins to cool off from the hot day and the sea, sparkling in the fading light rolls quietly in. The palm trees behind, mostly in shadows sway in the gentle breeze. The occasional bird fly's in to roost and the night creatures come out. On the beach a small crab dashes from hole to hole in search of food and like an opaque blob a jellyfish patiently waits for the sea to return. By now the beach is quiet, only the relaxing sounds remain, the sea as it sloshes up the beach the breeze as it gently blows through the alms, the birds calling their night calls and the nocturnal animals announcing that they are awake. I feel much more relaxed and cooled off now, it like someone has lifted all the weight of the days work off my shoulders allowing me to slouch here and do nothing. I start to play with the sand as a sit and stare out to see, I feel the grains running though my fingers like dry water, the coolness of the sand also helps to relax me. Also the cool breeze coming in from the sea seems to refresh me from the typical Caribbean heat. As I look around and consider going in another crag sidesteps in front of me, its legs sounding like small pebbles as the hit the sand, I smile as it randomly changes direction as though it were lost on to him is a vast desert like beach. Sitting here, alone makes me feel like nothing matters, that however bad things can get there is peace you just need to know where to find it and I have, here. Sighing I get up and plod back into my house, thinking of the horror awaiting me at the bar tomorrow.

Pro-Slavery Argument

Pro-slavery The main issue in America politics during the years of the late 1840's to the late 1870's was slavery. Southerners wanted to keep the tradition of slave labor alive, and were Justifying slavery in any way possible; issue of slavery was a continuing debate in the 1800's. James Henry Hammond, John C. Calhoun, and William Joseph Harper were some of the men most famous for propagating the pro-slavery argument. Slavery was the economic foundation in the southern states during the 1800's.The efenders of slavery in the south had several arguments that they used to rationalize slavery. One argument was that ending slavery would destroy the economy in the south. Another pro-slavery argument was that slavery was a natural state of mankind since it has existed throughout history. The southern states to this day are the agricultural surplus for all of the United States crop production. For centuries, slaves were the most efficient and cheapest way to produce and harvest crops.The eco nomic and political advantages of slaves are what ultimately allowed southern itizens to survive. During the late 1830s through early 1860s, the pro-slavery argument was at its strongest (â€Å"The Proslavery Argument†). After the Civil War, freed slaves often returned back to plantations in search of money, because they did not have the resources to continue. If slavery was not abolished they would remain as property of the owner and would not have starved or been forced to work in low paying Jobs.Even though they did not have the best living and working conditions, they at least were given enough to survive. While I agree slavery is an ill moral, the concept of slavery is an economic plus. Furthermore in 1837, John C. Calhoun gave a speech promoting the â€Å"positive good† outcomes of slavery while also declaring slavery was â€Å"instead of an evil, a good – a positive good† (â€Å"The Pro-slavery Argument†). Today, top nations exploit third wo rld countries resources and economic stability due to the fact they are unable function without exporting.Countries such as China, Taiwan, Thailand, and most countries in Africa, exploit children and women to roduce factory goods for little or no money. With that process occurring, China is expanding and will possibly become one of the next top super nations. Chinas explorations of its citizens allowed the countries expansions, which will ultimately develop the country Just like the United States. While Africa's resources, such as precious metals, are being metaphorically robbed by other nations. Countries will buy their resources for almost nothing, while they are being produced by low paying workers.Although the top nations have abolished slavery, they still manipulate the countries that use slavery. This process allows countries to outsource their money in return of large profits. â€Å"Southern pro-slavery theorists asserted that slavery eliminated this problem by elevating all free people to the status of â€Å"citizen†, and removing the landless poor (the â€Å"mudsill†) from the political process entirely by means of enslavement† (â€Å"The Pro-slavery Argument†). Works Cited â€Å"The Pro-slavery Argument Boundless. Boundless. O

Ethical Considerations in an Organisation

Ethical Considerations in an Organisation Introduction Ethics largely relates to the principles which oversee acceptable behavior and morality. In an organizational setting, it governs both the personal and corporate behavior, including their advancement to dealings with the interest groups and the environment. Thus, processes, which involve accountability, of finances are guided by ethical codes which guarantee their appropriateness.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Considerations in an Organisation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For instance, there are organizations where the top officials are a stumbling block to the making of ethical decisions. As they manipulate employees in to making unethical decisions, so as to benefit themselves. Such acts are against the professional ethics codes. Statement of the ethical dilemma While working as an accountant in an investment organization two years ago, I experienced an ethical dilemma, which tore me apar t. One morning, my marketing manager, walked in to my office asking me for a check of $ 650 for expenses he had incurred entertaining a client the previous night. He submitted receipts from a restaurant and hotel accommodation. Thus, I requested to be given time to complete the transaction, in accordance with the company procedure. Later that day during lunch break, a woman whom he was involved as illustrated by an extra marital affair, walked into the company cafeteria. She stopped right by my table and engaged in a phone conversation, in which I overheard her mention my marketing manager and how they had a good time the previous night in the hotel. The details were indicated on the receipts submitted to my office. I then realized the information my manager had given me was false. As a result, I did not know what step to take. Failure to adhere to his request would guarantee my dismissal. At the same time, I could not refund him basing on false information he had provided. This was against my professional ethics conduct. Organizations involved This company is the Prudential Company, which majors in the issuance of life cover and venture administration proficiency to provide persuasive asset development. This is in addition to, protection solutions for the ever-increasing sequestration needs of persons and business in the U.S. and abroad. Real stumbling blocks The company had a great chance of making huge profits from the investment transactions it was undertaking. The stumbling block was misappropriation of funds by the top company executives. Since, competition within investment organizations continue to strengthen as more companies sprout to suit the need of increased profitability.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Many companies are implementing strict financial management, which involves cutting down on disbursements. The recession influe nces resolutions for citizens on how to invest. Thus, profits would dwindle if the company continues to misappropriate funds. There are several interest unions which monitor and ensure the applicability of ethical considerations to gratify the need for fairness and accountability in the management of organization finances. Ethical decision making may vary in diverse organizations who may value it depending on its impact to the society. Leadership My department supervisor decided to take the lead in dealing with this ethical dilemma. As he was the principal accounting officer thus he was in charge of all monetary transactions. While citing his reasons, he explained that the greatness and outcomes of any unethical decision arising from the dilemma would prevail over the integrity of the organization’s values. Solving of the ethical dilemma Despite the fact that we risked losing our jobs, my supervisor and I reported this to the company director. Above all, we had the responsibi lity of making an ethical decision. As a result the marketing manager was suspended for misappropriation of company funds. In my judgment, the manager abused his office authority, and was supposed to be charged for attempted fraud. The situation was resolved ethically as there was a need to put this vice to a stop. The decision was reached with reference to the dynamics of ethical decision making, which include; professional role, attitudes, motivations and personal preference. Conclusion In the appliance of ethical considerations, there are general factors, for example, the assumption that unethical behaviors are part of any organization. Further, ethical considerations may go unrewarded in most instances.

Communication at work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Communication at work - Essay Example Michael (1988), states in his study that the communicator must make sure to be direct when communicating at work. He further asserts that the communicator should not involve irrelevant messages while he communicates as these irrelevant messages can lead to errors at the workplace. The misconception about reaching the point in communication at workplaces is that the communicator usually thinks that adding up other points may give him an advantage but this rather creates an absurd image in which one can miss out the main points of the original message. So it can be concluded that in communication it is necessary that the main point is laid out first so that these points are missed out later on by the relevant authorities (Michael 1988 & Kelly 1979). Another thing which is important in the mean of communication is that the person who is communicating does note carefully if the listener or the person who is being referred to understand the theme of the message. According to Broadwell and Dietrich (1998), this can be achieved by a two-way process. By two-way process here it is meant that the communicator should ask for replies from the person who is being referred to with the message. This would help to assure the communicator that his message is being interpreted properly by the listener. Similarly, if this is not done the message would be misinterpreted and other problems may arise at the workplace because of this miscommunication. Positivism is one important aspect of communicating at work.

The Separation of the Church and the State In the United States of Research Paper

The Separation of the Church and the State In the United States of America - Research Paper Example However, it could be noticed that the impending procedure of the law and how the church usually meddles with the procedures of the state in implementing the law in several occasions make this particular aim of separating both factors of the society somewhat unreal at several points of consideration (Boston, 2005, 18). This is the primary reason why this particular study is being commenced. The examination of the situation is indeed an important discussion as it directly affects the entire society and how religion and the law could be balanced as they are exercised in society. The issue being discussed in this paper is primarily based on the basic idea of the need of separating the responsibilities as well as the power of church and the state. This is primarily because of the separate aims of both sectors that make them particularly different from each other. Mixing both sectors of social function certainly brings about different conflicts within the systems of both sectors of the soc iety. (Mc Whirter, 1994, 16) The demarcation line between the state and the church begins with the educational amendments of the American practice in assisting the students gain knowledge about the Divinity of Religion towards the political involvement of the church within the different occasions that the government intend to decide on several issues that concern the society (Owen, 2000, 32). Because of the believed guidance that the church receives from the Grand Creator of all Things, some people tend to derive decisions from the church rather than simply relying on the law. (Hamburger, 2002, 47) Certain Protestant clergymen of the United States give much lip service to the principle of the separation of church and state. They loudly denounce any breaching of that wall by others, such as former President Truman's proposal to send an ambassador to the Vatican. But do they respect that wall of separation between church and state when it conflicts with their own interests to do so They do not (Owen, 2000, 43). Th e "Released Time" program by which school children are released from public schools so that they can take religious instructions elsewhere is a case in point. This program breaches the wall of separation in that it uses the state's compulsory school machinery to supply classes for religious organizations (Awake! 1989, 24).     

The Existence of God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

The Existence of God - Essay Example When he does buy it that is not God answering your prayer, but just coincidence. My remarks surprised you because you are a staunch believer in God. You rejected my argument, terming it logically fallacious, saying there is a supreme being that controls our existence and nature. You continued to say that everything that happens does so for a reason, and the reason is God. That was brilliant and so enlightening. Introducing the fallacies of the appeal of faith, I stated that if you do not have faith you could not learn about God and His mysteries. Faith relies on belief and does not base on any evidence, depends on irrationalism in thinking. This implies that, if you do not believe in God, then you surely cannot learn about him. I am not a believer but know little about God, because I believe knowing about Him is not necessarily about faith but interest in learning. You could not agree with me at all from the beginning. Your response was that one has to have faith in God, to understand how mysterious He is, and termed my argument logically fallacious. Also, dismissed my argument saying that you cannot learn about something you do not believe in at all. That was a smart argument and really got me thinking. This was a revelation to me. I also brought forward the fallacy on begging the question or assuming the answer to certain problems in the society. Many people believe that spreading religion among more people in society will instill moral behavior. I did not understand how praise and worship could instill moral behavior in the society, rather than teaching moral behavior and personal choice of people. Being a believer, you explained that from God’s teachings Christians are encouraged to have good moral behaviors. Therefore, spreading religion to more members of society, to have more believers, there will be a change of morality in society. This was a truly factual argument. Receive my

INndividual Assignment 5 Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

INndividual Assignment 5 - Article Example Products and services can be spread to others through status posts and pictures, thus the advertising companies get the benefit of passive advertising at a very low cost (88). For example, in the global social networking website Facebook, large companies took the advantage of both interacting with their consumers as well as getting their feedback and photos of the product to gain a wider range of audience. The more people â€Å"like† their pages, it is correlated with many people becoming more aware of their products, which spells as a success in their advertising campaign in Facebook. Using this network in advertising products can be an effective strategy in the promotion of new products and showcasing best-selling items to others, which is why many companies were already on this bandwagon of advertising by making their own product page known among network users. Many companies created their own pages in the social networking giant, and a blog post in 2010 shows which companies and products gained the most number of â€Å"likes† among its users (Porterfield). The blog explains the successful marketing strategies of the top 10 Facebook product pages, two of which, Red Bull Page (ranked number 1) and The Twilight Saga Page (ranked number 9) would be discussed here. First is how Red Bull was able to gain top rank in 2010 for number of â€Å"likes†, which was accomplished by numerous interactive links in the page such as games and video-uploads, as well as the use of attention-grabbing images for fans to â€Å"like† their page (Porterfield). The company did not use too many texts, but rather focused on creative advertising so as to grab the attention of social networking users. Because Red Bull removed the complexities of too much reading and instead used interactive and creative strategies of gaining the interest of interne t citizens, they were able to gain many fans and rank number one in the list. Red Bull as an energy beverage is not a

Liberal Intergovernmentalism

Liberal Intergovernmentalism What choice for Europe? Reflections on agency and structure in Liberal Intergovernmentalism ABSTRACT This article examines how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in Liberal Intergovernmentalism, a prevailing theory of European integration. It demonstrates that, contrary to the widespread view that it is agency-centred, Liberal Intergovernmentalism is in fact a highly structuralist theory in the issue areas it claims to explain best. In these areas integration is ultimately explained in terms of developments in economic structures, leaving no room for agency and ideas. The article also shows that, despite the importance it ascribes to changes in economic structures, Liberal Intergovernmentalism fails to theorise their possible causes. Keywords: Liberal Intergovernmentalism; Moravcsik; Agency; Structure; Integration theory Over the past two decades Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI) has established itself as one of the prevailing theories of European integration. Elegantly combining a liberal theory of preference formation with an intergovernmentalist theory of interstate bargains and a functional theory of institutional choice it explains European integration as the outcome of a series of intergovernmental negotiations. More than any other contemporary theory of integration LI and its application in empirical analyses has provoked discussion in the field of EU studies. Opinions are divided between those who admire LI for its parsimony and predictive power and those who feel that its account of regional integration misses out on too much of importance. Either way, hardly anyone would dispute that it continues to be a theory that it is necessary to relate to in one way or another in theoretically informed work on European integration. The purpose of this article is to critically examine the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of integration from a meta-theoretical perspective. More precisely, it will be systematically analysed how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in LI. Any theorys account of the social world, or delimited parts of it, is based on a particular, albeit often implicit, conceptualisation of the agency-structure relationship and whether or not this conceptualisation is convincing impacts greatly on the quality of the theorys account of social phenomena and change. There is thus much to be learned about a theory, in this case LI, from examining its underlying assumptions with respect to agency and structure. This is even more so because appearances can be deceiving: as it will be argued in this article, LI which appears and is widely assumed to offer an agency-centred account of European integration, turns out to do the opposite on closer scrutiny. In addition to this introduction and a conclusion the article is divided into seven sections. The first two sections set the stage for later analyses by briefly introducing LI and the question of the agency-structure relationship, while also accounting for their respective significance. The following three sections examine how the agency-structure question is dealt with at each of the three stages of LI: preference formation, interstate bargaining and institutional choice. Against this background section six critically examines the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of European integration before section seven discusses the political implications of LI. 1. Liberal Intergovernmentalism Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal intergovernmentalism (LI) was first presented in the early 1990s and later elaborated and applied in a string of publications of which the monumental book The Choice for Europe (1998) contains the most detailed exposition and test of the theory. LI is presented as a framework for synthesising theories into a coherent account of regional integration. The latter is explained as the result of ‘a series of celebrated intergovernmental bargains (Moravcsik, 1993: 473). More precisely integration is seen as the outcome of a three-stage process where: (1) national interests or goals arise in the context of domestic politics; (2) governments bargain with each other to further their national interest; and (3) governments make an institutional choice to secure credible commitment once a substantive agreement has been reached. LI quickly became a focal point in debates on how to theorise European integration and it has subsequently kept this position. According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 67), LI ‘has acquired the status of a â€Å"baseline theory† in the study of regional integration: an essential first cut explanation against which other theories are often compared. In their view, ‘it has achieved this dominant status due to its theoretical soundness, empirical power, and utility as a foundation for synthesis with other explanations (2009: 67). To be sure, not everyone would agree with this latter sentiment. As alluded to in the introduction, several scholars have criticised the theory for painting a too incomplete or even misleading picture of the European integration process and the ‘empirical power of the resulting analyses has often been questioned (e.g. Diez, 1999; Smith, 2000; Wincott, 1995; see also Cini, 2007: 112-14 for an overview of some critiques of LI). In asmuch as relatively few scholars besides Moravcsik appear to wholeheartedly embrace LI (Pollack, 2001; however, cf. Laursen, 2002), it is probably fair to say that it has acquired its status as a â€Å"baseline theory† as much because of its perceived weaknesses as because of its strengths. Similar to Waltzs (1979) neorealism LI is a parsimonious and bold theory that lends itself to accusations of neglecting or underestimating the significance of important parameters in the case of LI for instance transnational business groups and activist supranational institutions. Indeed, LI does this deliberately, seeking ‘to simplify EU politics, stressing the essential and excluding certain secondary activities (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 68). Hereby it follows the neo-positivist recipe for theory construction, according to which theories should take the form of simplified models that can support efforts to make generalisations by singling out as few variables as possible and account for the causal relations between, and the relative weight of, these variables. Falsifiable hypothesises are derived from such theories and subsequently tested against reliable empirical data. On the basis of such tests, theories can then be further refined or occasionally discarded. (1 ) Testing LI is precisely what Moravcsik sets out to do in The Choice for Europe. Here standardised hypotheses derived from LI and competing (albeit for the most part artificial) theories are tested against an overwhelming amount of empirical data in five cases studies. Needless to say, LI comes out on top as the theory with the by far greatest explanatory power. More generally, The Choice for Europe constitutes an example par excellence of research informed by neo-positivist methods and standards. In its early pages Moravcsik informs his readership that the book ‘eschews ad hoc explanation and seeks instead to discover what is generalizable about EC history (1998: 2) and that it ‘is based on methods which, while far from ideal, generate more rigorous, transparent, objective, and reliable tests of competing theoretical claims about European integration than have heretofore been conducted (1998: 10). The bulk of studies of EC decision-making are criticised for biased data se lection and for relying on ‘citations to secondary sources themselves drawn from journalistic commentary or still other secondary sources (1998: 10). In contrast to this, Moravcsik claims to have backed ‘potentially controversial attribution of motive or strategy †¦ by â€Å"hard† primary sources (direct evidence of decision-making) rather than â€Å"soft† or secondary sources (1998: 10, see also pp. 80-84). (2) 2. Agency and structure The question of how to conceptualise the relationship between agency and structure is arguably one of the most important questions facing social scientists (Archer, 1995: 65). This is due to the importance of agency and structures in the social world and to the fact that it is impossible to offer explanations of events in the social world without appealing to some understanding of their relationship. As mentioned in the introduction there is thus much to be learned about the nature and quality of substantive theories from examining their underlying assumptions with respect to this relationship. Yet the way the latter is dealt with is also important for political reasons, to which we will come back in section 7 below. â€Å"Agency† denotes the ability of agents, whether individuals or groups, to act upon situations and it ‘implies a sense of free will, choice or autonomy that the actor could have behaved differently (Hay, 2002: 94). Agency should thus not be confused wit h concepts like â€Å"individuals†, â€Å"actors† or â€Å"agents†: without anticipating the conclusions of this article too much, a theory can refer to plenty of agents, while not allowing for any agency. â€Å"Structure†, on the other hand, refers to the relational context within which agents operate. Structures define the range of options available to agents. Nowadays the vast majority of scholars agree that both agency and structure matter: phenomena and developments in the social world issue not from either one or the other but are a product of both. If this is the case then it is necessary to break with the two ways of conceptualising the relation between agency and structure that have traditionally been dominant within social theory, namely structuralism and individualism. In their pure versions these positions either picture agents as marionettes (structuralism) or as omnipotent puppet-masters (individualism) (Archer, 1995; XXXXX). However, knowing that both agency and structure matter does not in itself take us far. To make a difference the insight needs to be incorporated into substantive theories and this is by no means an easy task. This contributes to explain why many theories end up offering reductionist explanations of the specific social phenomena they are meant to render intelligible. In the discipline of International Relations (IR) a debate over the â€Å"agent-structure problem† was initiated in the late 1980s by scholars such as Wendt (1987) and Hollis and Smith (1990). Later, and certainly no less interesting contributions to this debate included Doty (1997), Bieler and Morton (2001) and Wight (2006). The debate has done much to clarify and in many cases criticise the ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying mainstream IR theories, particularly Waltzian neorealism (Waltz, 1979). In EU Studies a similar debate has not taken place, and although in particular some constructivist scholars, have taken an interest in the agency-structure relationship (e.g. Wind, 2001), a comprehensive study of the way the most important theories of European integration and governance deal with it has yet to be published. However, it seems to be a widespread view among EU scholars that many of these theories privilege agency over structure. For instance, Risse ( 2004: 161) writes that the ‘prevailing theories of European integration whether neofunctionalism, liberal intergovernmentalism, or â€Å"multi-level governance† are firmly committed to a rationalist ontology which is agency-centred by definition. In a similar vein, other scholars have noticed ‘the ahistorical and structure-blind assumptions underlying intergovernmentalism (Hix, 1994: 9) and observed that in LI ‘agents are, implicitly or explicitly, considered primary actors ultimately determine the shape of overall structures (Christiansen, 1998: 103). In the next sections, the validity of this widespread view will be examined through an analysis of the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at each of the three stages in LI. 3. National preference formation The first stage in explaining the outcome of intergovernmental bargains is to account for the national preferences, which are defined as ‘an ordered and weighted set of values placed on future substantive outcomes †¦ that might result from international political interaction (Moravcsik, 1998: 24). This is done by means of a liberal political economy theory of preference formation, according to which national preferences arise in the context of domestic politics, where national government leaders form them on the basis of the preferences and actions of the most important societal groups. Most important among these are domestic producers: ‘The systematic political bias in favor of existing producer groups and against those, notably consumers, taxpayers, third-country producers, and also potential future producers, stems from the formers more intense, certain, and institutionally represented and organized interests (1998: 36). The state is conceptualised as ‘a rep resentative institution constantly subject to capture and recapture by societal groups (Moravcsik, 1997: 518). Because governments have an interest in remaining in office, they need the support from coalitions of domestic actors. The policies pursued by governments are ‘therefore constrained by the underlying identities, interests, and power of individuals and groups †¦ who constantly pressure the central decision makers to pursue politics consistent with their preferences (ibid: 518). In other words, ‘[g]roups articulate preferences; governments aggregate them and it is through this process that ‘the set of national interests or goals that states bring to international negotiations emerges (Moravcsik, 1993: 483). To evaluate the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at this stage in LI it is clearly crucial to understand the origins of the preferences of societal groups. Some of the early critics of LI suggested that the theory fails to account adequately for this. For instance, it was pointed out that ‘the origins of such interests are exogenized (Risse-Kappen, 1996: 56) while others claimed that in LI ‘interests are not structurally derived (Caporaso and Keeler, 1995: 44) and even that they ‘emerge mysteriously (McSweeney, 1998: 101). Had it in fact been the case that LI leaves completely open the question of where the preferences of societal groups come from it would have allowed for an agency-centred perspective on preference formation. That is, preferences could have been formed on the basis of all sorts of ideas and individual inclinations. However, this would have seriously undermined the parsimony and explanatory power of the theory and hence it was in fact never left open where preferences come from. As Moravcsik has made clear, LI perceives preferences to be directly caused by structural circumstances, more precisely economic structures: ‘I employ a structural theory of those preferences. My structural approach†¦employs trade flows, competitiveness, inflation rates, and other data to predict what the economic preferences of societal actors and therefore governments should be (Moravcsik, 1999b: 377). In other words, economic preferences are derived from economic structures: societal groups organise and articulate their preferences ‘on the basis of calculations of net expected costs and benefits resulting from the introduction of new policies (Moravcsik, 1993: 489). It follows as a logical implication that ‘shifts in preferences should follow the onset and precede the resolution of shifts or trends in economic circumstances (Moravcsik, 1998: 50). The assumption that economic structures translate directly into specific preferences is made possible by the rationality assumption underpinning LI. The widespread view that LI is agency-centred is related to this assumption that individuals, groups, governments and even states are rational. This begs the question of what â€Å"rationalism† precisely entails, especially as some scholars have suggested that Moravcsik fails to spell this clearly out (Christiansen et al., 2001: 4). In a recent piece Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 68) put it as follows: ‘Rationalism is an individualist or agency assumption. Actors calculate the alternative courses of action and choose the one that maximizes (or satisfies) their utility under the circumstances. Collective outcomes are explained as the result of aggregated individual actions based on efficient pursuit albeit subject to the information at hand and uncertainty about the future. Despite the qualifications at the end of the quote it is clear that whatever this uncertainty pertains to it is not to the consequences of the actions of agents: agents are assumed to be very well-informed about these because, as Moravcsik has put it himself, in ‘a world in which the future consequences of actions are unknown †¦ LI would make little sense (1995: 626). This is an important manifestation, because the more it is assumed that agents know the future consequences of their actions, the more it must also be assumed that they are fully informed about the context in which they currently find themselves. It is quite simply logically inconceivable that an agent can somehow know the future consequences of his or her actions without having perfect or very close to perfect information at hand at the moment of the action itself. Moravcsik is thus significantly underplaying the strength of his rationality assumption when stating that ‘it takes no position on whether states are fully informed, though a framework in which states are assumed to be informed generally performs well (1998: 23). Why not walk the plank? Surely states and other agents can safely be assumed to be blessed full information if it has already been established that no or very few unintended consequences will follow from their actions? At the end of the day the rationality assumption boils down to the view that agents are utility-maximisers with clearly ordered preferences who are (almost?) fully informed, also about the future consequences of actions. However, it should not be concluded from this that LI is an agency-centred theory as the conventional wisdom has it. As we have seen above, preferences are derived from economic structures not just in the weak sense that structures are important in relation to preferences but in the strong sense that they alone dictate preferences (albeit with a minor qualification to which we will return in a moment). Because the rational agents are assumed to be so well-informed their actions become predictable once their structural environment has been mapped. Indeed, only structures matter here inasmuch as ‘[p]references are by definition causally independent of the strategies of other actors (Moravcsik, 1997: 519, see also 1998: 24-25). Moreover, ideas are for the most part not allowed to play any role in relation to preference formation. It is worth dwelling on this for a moment. On one hand, Moravcsik does not hesitate to acknowledge the importance of ideas, as when he proclaims that they ‘are like oxygen or language; it is essentially impossible for humans to function without them (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). On the other hand, ideas do not play a very prominent role in LI, which is also recognized by Moravcsik when he writes that ‘[i]n the LI account of integration, ideas are present but not causally central. They may be irrelevant or random, or, more likely, they are â€Å"transmission belts† for interests (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). The only reason why Moravcsik can correctly maintain that in LI ‘[s]ome national preferences are grounded in ideas (1998: 23) is because some importance is ascribed to the latter in issue areas where the material consequences of policy initiatives are more or less impossible to calculate. For instance, he mentions ‘questions of European institutions and common foreign policy as issues where governments/states will generally not to be under strong pressure from societal groups to pursue particular policies, which creates some room for government leaders to act on the basis of ‘ideologies and personal commitments (Moravcsik, 1993: 494; see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 85). According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 76), ‘LI best explains policy-making in issue areas where social preferences are relatively certain and well defined. In the core areas, like trade, agriculture and monetary policy, ideas are not assumed to influence preference formation at all. When it comes to ‘insignificant, exceptional and speculative issues like those mentioned above or the Open Method of Coordination (ibid.: 85) where the preferences of societal groups are less clear and strong, and where the explanatory power of LI is thus recognised to be limited, ideas are conveniently allowed to play a role. To recapitulate, in LI no importance is ascribed to ideas in the explanation of what is (correctly) considered to be the ‘substantively important issues (ibid.: 85) in the European integration process: here economic structures do the job alone. (3) 4. International bargains Once the national preferences have been formulated, national decision-makers bring them to the intergovernmental bargaining table. At this second stage LI applies an intergovernmentalist bargaining theory in order to explain the outcome of negotiations. As the primary interest of the governments is to remain in office, they have a clear incentive to defend the national interest in the negotiation. Accordingly, ‘[t]he configuration of domestically determined national preferences defines a â€Å"bargaining space† of potentially viable agreements (Moravcsik, 1993: 496-497). The outcome of a concrete negotiation, however, not only reflects the different national preferences but also the relative bargaining power of different states. Moravcsik defines power in terms of asymmetric interdependence: ‘Bargaining leverage stems most fundamentally from asymmetries in the relative intensity of national preferences, which reflect †¦ the relative costs of agreements to remo ve negative externalities (ibid.: 1993: 499). This means that ‘[t]he power of each government is inversely proportional to the relative value that it places on an agreement (Moravcsik, 1998: 62). How, then, is the agency-structure relationship dealt with at this second stage? Or to put it differently: how much freedom does government leaders have to pursue their own preferences or ideas (agency) and how much are they constrained by their context (structure)? First, the answer to this question depends on the issue area. As mentioned, governments are severely constrained by domestic societal groups in core areas: here they can only act within a narrow â€Å"bargaining space† which limits their freedom considerably. In more marginal (non-economic) issue areas this space widens and government leaders enjoy more freedom to pursue their own agendas. Second, any particular government is constrained by the bargaining spaces of other governments. The nature of these determines the extent to which a government leader is capable of realising national interests. Finally, the outcomes of previous bargains serve as the status quo ‘with respect to which societal actors and gove rnments calculate preferences and alternatives to agreement (Moravcsik, 1995: 612). As mentioned above, the outcome of a concrete bargain reflects the relative bargaining power of each state. As bargaining power is defined in terms of asymmetric interdependence it is, in fact, derived from the very same structures as national preferences. These structures determine how attractive a potential policy is to societal groups and thus governments and consequently they also determine the relative bargaining power. Relative power is thus ultimately decided at the structural level not at the level of agents. This brings us back to the point that was raised in the previous section, namely that the rationality assumption underpinning LI does not serve to render it an agency-centred theory. To be sure, there are plenty of agents in LI, and there is no denying that the theory belongs to the tradition of â€Å"methodological individualism†. But by substituting real agents with ‘calculating machines who always know what they want and are never uncertain about the f uture and even their own stakes and interests (Risse, 2009: 147), LI effectively ends up with no notion of agency at all, at least not in its account of integration in core issue areas. That it is apparently unnecessary to study the interaction between state representatives in order to explain the outcome of a bargain tells it all: the creativity, charisma, persuasiveness and negotiating abilities of particular agents are insignificant in LI. By assuming that agents are identical in the sense of being rational it is possible to derive the outcome of bargains simply by looking at the context in which it takes place. This makes LI a structuralist theory also in its second stage. To be sure, the structuralism of LI differs from conventional structuralism inasmuch as the former retains a focus on agents and their free choices. But the point is that the â€Å"methodological individualism† of LI and other rational choice theories does not entail a genuine notion of agency in that a free choice is neither free nor, indeed, a real choice, if it is always already given by the context in which the agent operates (see also Hay, 2002: 103-104; Tsebelis, 1990: 40). (4) 5. Institutional choice Once governments have reached substantive agreement in a bargain, they set up institutional arrangements in order to secure it. At this third stage LI adopts a functional theory of institutional choice according to which governments pool or delegate authority in order to ‘constrain and control one another (Moravcsik, 1998: 9). Authority is â€Å"pooled† when governments for instance agree to take decisions in an issue area by means of qualified majority voting in the Council, whereas â€Å"delegation† refers to the transfer of authority to more or less autonomous supranational institutions (ibid.: 1998: 67). Pooling and delegation are ‘viewed as solutions to the problem of â€Å"incomplete contracting,† which arises when member governments share broad goals but find it too costly or technically impossible to specify all future contingencies involved in legislating or enforcing those goals (ibid.: 1998: 73). By pooling or delegating, the credibility of the commitment to the substantive agreement that has been reached is enhanced. But by giving up authority in an issue area governments clearly run the risk of being either outvoted by other governments (pooling) or of being overruled by supranational institutions (delegation) in future cases. Hence, ‘[t]he specific level of pooling or delegation reflects a reciprocal cost-benefit analysis: governments renounce unilateral options in order to assure that all governments will coordinate their behavior in particular ways (ibid.: 1998: 75). LI predicts that pooling and delegation will vary across issues and countries. Again, the preferences of societal groups are crucial: ‘Governments transfer sovereignty to commit other governments to accept policies favored by key domestic constituencies (ibid.: 1998: 76). As accounted for above the preferences of societal groups are seen as structurally determined, at least in the core issue area s. In the end the governments institutional choices thus become rather mechanical, following more or less automatically from the circumstances in which they are made. According to LI, international institutions are ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules (Moravcsik, 1993: 508) that for instance serve to provide states with information ‘to reduce the states uncertainty about each others future preferences and behaviour (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72). Somewhat surprisingly, Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig link the existence of such institutions to â€Å"unanticipated consequences† of actions, proclaiming that LI also assumes the existence of the latter: ‘If unanticipated consequences did not exist, there would be no need for international institutions to elaborate â€Å"incomplete contracts† to begin with. The reason for institutions is precisely to elaborate agreements and credibly lock in compliance against defection by future unsatisfied governments (2009: 75). This, to be sure, is a somewhat unorthodox and problematic use of the concept. When, for instance, historical institutionalists are talking about unintended or unanticipated consequences in the context of European integration, their argument is that supranational institutions and policies tend to develop in ways not originally envisaged and subsequently not approved of by member state governments (Pierson, 1996). Due to â€Å"path dependency† and other mechanisms such institutions and the course of the integration process can become impossible for governments to control. Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig clearly have something altogether different in mind when they talk about unanticipated consequences. In fact, what they are talking about can more accurately be denoted ‘anticipated but undesired outcomes. These arise when rational governments anticipate that there is a risk that other rational governments will not comply with the substantive agreement that has been reached in an intergovernmental bargain. To avoid this undesired outcome governments agree on an institutional arrangement to create certainty. On this view, institutions (being ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules) only contribute to minimise uncertainty by eliminating the risk of undesired outcomes (see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72) it is unthinkable that they can develop and behave in ways not intended by governments. At the end of the day, it is not unintended consequences that LI assumes the existence of but rather the ability of governments to ver y accurately predict the consequences of their substantive agreement and on this basis chose the most suitable institutional agreements. This dubious assumption can obviously only be made if it is held, as LI does, that agents are blessed with more or less perfect information, also of future outcomes of their actions (see also Pierson, 2004: 115-XXX). 6. What choice for Europe? ‘the motivations and coalitions underlying national preferences in specific decisions reflected the economic interest of sectors as predicted by their structural position in global markets †¦ any feedback must take the form of changes in economic structures, not ideas (Moravcsik, 1999b: 382) The liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of regional integration ultimately comes down to developments in economic structures and it is therefore logical and appropriate that Moravcsik (1998: 501) refers to it as a ‘structural perspective. Although the concept of â€Å"economic structures† is not defined as clearly as other LI concepts, it basically appears to denote the phenomena that economic indicators are expressions of, examples being trade flows, inflation rates, wealth and competitiveness. The method is thus to use economic indicators as expressions of the economic structures determining the preferences of agents. For instance it reads that ‘Taken together, capital mobility, trade flows, and inflationary convergence provide a prima facie explanation of the progressive shift in national preferences away from, then back toward, exchange-rate cooperation over the two decades following the collapse of the Bretton Woods. This period saw an increase in economic openness and, beginning in the late 1970s, convergence toward low inflation (Moravcsik, 1998: 48) But what caused this and other shifts in economic circumstances? What explains the timing of such shifts? Considering the enormous importance it ascribes to economic structures it would be completely reasonable to expect LI to address and tentatively provide a theoretical answer to such questions. But it doesnt! In all fairness, Moravcsik

Benefits of Human Cloning :: Clones Biology

What is cloning? "Cloning is the process of making a genetically identical organism through nonsexual means."(www.Howstuffworks.com) It has been used for thousands of years to produce plants. The next stage was to clone animals. Scientists can take unfertilized eggs of some small animals, and clone them, so they develop into full adults. After knowing that people realized how great it would be if we could clone humans. There would be a lot of advantages in cloning humans. Lets say someone will die if they can't get a heart transplant. If scientists could clone the human heart, they might be able to save that persons life. Also if they could clone a full human body, they could use the cloned bone marrow as a cure to leukemia. Scientists can also use some cloned animals organs for transplants. Or another big issue would be if you could not have a child with your husband or wife. Many couples around the world would give anything for a chance to have a child. With cloning they would be able to clone a human being that would grow up to be just like one of them. What can cloning do for you? If one of your family members was sick or dying of a disease, scientists will be able to clone them, so they will be normal again. Or maybe one of your pets needs a new liver, they can also clone one, so your pet can live. How would you like it if cloning could bring back some of the worlds most honored and respected people? For example, Albert Einstein was one of the smartest men alive. And with cloning, we could duplicate his DNA to create an exact replica of him. They could do the same for a sports legend or an award winning actor or actress. There are endless possibilities with cloning. What have we already cloned? We have cloned more than what the average person knows about. We have been cloning plants for a very long time. And we have cloned many small animals. Most people know about scientists cloning a sheep named Dolly, but what they don't know is that they have cloned many more small and large animals. They have cloned sheep, goats, cows, mice, pigs, cats, rabbits, and a gaur.

Mine pro

There are 3 doctor and 5 nurse that have been worked in this organization. Usually the operation starts on game until pm. The special of this organization is, it is open every day. This organization has been built to easier the student to make a day with a healthy health. Not only give a free treatment for student, the organization give the service for all the candidate in Tim include the worker and lecture too. Purposely to short the time and help the student to get the faster treatment so the learning schedule will not been disturb.Not only give free treatment, this organization supply medicine for those that need it for free too. The medicine did came from various of supplier because f different disease that may influence. Not because that only the medicine that have been supply are based on budget that have be limited by government. 1. 2 Organizational Chart 1. 3 Current System Description The patient and the doctor usually have to fill down all the info as manually. They have to write it in a card that have prepare for them to refill like patient card, doctor card.Medicine supplier and many more works. All of this card will be save in one cabinet that special made for it. The patient will write down their personal detail and their first date receive service provide. The actor will receive patient detail, begin the treatment and suggest the solution or the medicine should take. After that the medical section will receive receipt from the doctor, prepare the medicine and give to patience. From the medicine section work, the workers need to do all the record manually about the process of in and out the medicine.About the stock, Who are the supplier and the quantity Of the medicine too. After that the worker need to make a monthly report, so they knew the quantity and the disease that mostly affected. 1. 4 Current System Problem The patient may have more than one patient card. Take time to find patient card. The doctor may have lost the past information about the patient health problem. May lost the record about the medicine. 2. Proposed Project Overview 2. 1 Proposed System Process The patient will fill in the information into the system when they first come.